Glacial retreat case study

Glacier National Park: In glacier national park, there is significant glacial recession. Only 25 of the 150 glaciers of Glacier National Park are in existence. It is predicted that by 2030, 5 more glaciers will disappear. The flora and fauna living in the glacial habitats of GNP (lynx, wolverine,flowers) are in decline as global warming occurs and spring snow cover is lost
Antarctica: Likewise, Antarctica's glacial regions are suffering decline. On certain coastal areas of the peninsula, there has been a recorded recession of 55 trillion litres of water annually. In certain areas glaciers are decreasing roughly 4 meters per year. Antarctica's glacial decline is so significant that it has contributed .16 millimetres to the entire ocean yearly.
Social Impact:
-Glaciers are essential for drinking water so as these melt away into the ocean, the world loses available freshwater
-Asia relies on glaciers for irrigation and many will need to change their lifestyle should these disappear
-As sea levels rise, coastal communities will be flooded and beaches will be lost
Environmental Impact:
-Flora and Fauna lifing in glacial environments are gradually loosing their habitat

-Coral reefs are dying as rising sea-level leads to lack of accessible sunlight for photosynthesis
-The weight of glaciers on the earth are suppressing to seismic activity however as they disappear, more earthquakes and volcanoes will occur/erupt
Economic Impact:
-The tourism industries in glacial areas (ex. Glacial National Park) will decline
-Clean freshwater will be in higher demand and need to be conserved more
-Environmental response to glacial retreat results in damage to human development and expenses will need to be paid for repairing purposes
B) Tourism
In the case of Glacier National Park, tourism of the glacial region accounts for roughly 1 billion per year. Should the glacial regions decline, this area's economy will also decline. As the flora, fauna, and beautiful phenomenons created by glaciers disappear, so while guests. Furthermore in 46,000 workers are employed annually for peak tourist season, the tourists spend 1.8 billion, and 1.93 million visitors arrive each year. This region is very dependant on the tourism industry and as glaciers decline, will be negatively economically 
affected. 

Energy Assignment 3

1) Based on the cost of implementation, the country's geography, and what Pakistan's government is already doing, Coal is unfortunately the most fitting source of energy to be utilized. Pakistan is a country suffering many economic disadvantages and has high government expenses due to flooding and natural disasters. As over half of the country is said to be below the poverty line and it is considered a third world country, the cheapest option will be most easily available to support the country. Based the government's ethics and priorities in terms of environmental conservation, it is evident that environmentally friendly sources of energy are not highest priority.Pakistan has an abundant of coal to utilize, It's largest coal reserves in Sidh possess 184.623 billion tonnes to the resource. Pakistan is also a major provider of the world's oil and  can easily access it as a source of fuel to be burned. Currently, the government is allowing the county to be 65% reliable on combustable fuel so therefore thermal energy is the most likely to be implemented Pakistan

2)Nuclear power plants are more expensive to erect and maintain than thermal energy generators. Nevertheless they are less expensive to erect than solar energy cells. The country does not produce and store vast amounts of Uranium but has roughly 1,159 tonnes that have been produced and stored. The country is not as abundant in this resource as it is in coal and oil. Currently, the government has 3 nuclear power plants erected that provide 0.9% of the country's energy. This has less potential to be implemented in Pakistan than thermal energy plants do.

3)Solar energy does not seem like the first option that Pakistan would choose for energy production. Considering the country's priorities, it would most likely not spend large quantities of money to erect solar energy cells. Based on the country's desert climate, it would make sense to erect thermal energy plants considering the intense summers climate. Pakistan has vast amounts of sunlight readily available. However, Pakistan currently does not use or generate any significant quantities of solar energy as it mostly relies on thermal and hydroelectric power. Presently, thermal energy has the least potent implemented in contrast to nuclear power and coal use.

Energy Assignment Part 2

The electrical power in Pakistan is largely generated from thermal power plants. Thermal power is produced by the burning of fuels which in this case, is coal: the cheapest and most damaging of energy sources. There are currently 21 thermal power plants in service and 13 undergoing the process of proposition and construction.

To erect these power plants are inexpensive and generate millions of dollars worth of thermal energy each year. During the Kashmir earthquake many of these power stations were damaged and flooding is also destroying the electricity plants. The impact of Pakistan's thermal-energy reliance is that there are increasing levels of smog and acid rain effecting the country.

Coal burning is also a major contributor to climate change which is something that Pakistan struggles with as they experience irregular precipitation and flooding.

Energy Assignment Part One

Coal, Nuclear, and Solar Energy

Coal: The advantage that using coal as a source of energy is that it is the easiest to utilize and the most affordable source. It also employs nearly 340,000 people and is therefore beneficial to the economy. In addition, for every person employed in the coal industry, this directly results in 3.5 people obtaining another job as coal is heavily relied on. Canada and America were both founded on the use of coal especially in the industrial revolution and are therefore still quite reliant on it. However, coal is not a long-term source of energy as it is not a renewable resource and the earth is damaged for it's obtainment. Workers in this industry are negatively affected by health effects including black lung and chronic bronchitis. From the heavy metals and dangerous elements that they are exposed to, workers are known to have a decreased life expectancy. Coal is also very damaging to the environment. Furthermore, strip-mining of coal destroys the genetic profile of soil, alters the lithosphere, and creates a hostile, unlivable environment for flora and fauna. Rivers also come polluted from the limestone ash associated with coal-mining. The burning of coal releases 20+ toxic chemicals into the air and ruins the atmosphere with the greenhouse gasses it emits.

Nuclear: In contrast to coal use, the utilization of nuclear power does not involve nearly as much greenhouse gasses to be released, nor does it release significant amounts of carbon dioxide. The operating costs of nuclear power plants are generally relatively low and from a single plant, huge amounts of energy is able to be generated. The issues with this method include the fact that high levels of Uranium are required although it is a rare resource. Furthermore the waste that nuclear-energy production leaves behind is dangerously radioactive and must be dealt with in the most cautious of ways so as not to release toxic chemicals and radioactivity into the world. This form of energy is very risky to use as there is no room for an accident to happen. If one does, it could effect the whole world. An example of a power-plant accident would be the incident in Fukushima in which over 100,000 people were forced to evacuate and 1000 were killed in the process of maintaining the evacuation.

Solar: Of the three, Solar energy is by far the most ideal method. Solar energy is both renewable and sustainable as there are no radioactive or rare materials needed and the utilization of sun-rays does not involve the release of harmful substances. Sunlight readily available for absorption and is so safe that its generators can be conveniently placed on rooftops. The disadvantages of this source of energy is that solar cells can be rather expensive to obtain and they require large amounts of surface area to be effective. Furthermore, if there is too much pollution already in the air, it can hinder the effectiveness of these fuel cells. Another issue is that they can usually only absorb energy in the daytime and in areas with minimal periods of daylight, this form of energy will not be the most abundant.

1. It is evident that a major earthquake will occur in Vancouver as it is on the Juan de Fuca plate. This is an at-risk zone that will eventually cause destruction as others around the world of this kind have. The chilean earthquake may have had the power to trigger earthquakes in plate boundaries such as the Juan de Fuca and as more earthquakes occur around the world, more plates will be triggered. The Nazca plate in Chile moves 6 cm a year and was able to produce a 9.5 magnitude earthquake. Juan de Fuca moves at the similar fast rate of 5 cm a year and will therefore most likely create an earthquake of similar magnitude and destruction. Based on studiesof earthquakes in the pasts, seismologists have devised that earthquakes occur in approximately 200-850 years intervals. Juan de Fuca’s last earthquake occurred 1700 years ago so the chances of an earthquake happening soon are significant.
2. Geological Setting: Juan de Fuca is subducted below the North american plate as it is moving underneath the continental plate. Grating against Juan de Fuca, the Pacific plate is contributes to a buildup of earthquake-causing stress. Therefore, if Vancouver were to have an earthquake, it would be due to the strain of a transform fault or subduction zone. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7jAVdSBUNtQ (youtube link)
3. A) Liquification: In Vancouver, the highest-risk area for liquefaction is False creek. The soil is very saturated, and therefore vulnerable to this kind of disaster

Landslides: Chilliwack Valley is at a high risk of having a landslide due to the high slope that it is on.
Tsunami: Vancouver Island is at a high-risk area for being affected by a tsunami. Due to low elevation and costal characteristics, the area will be heavily affected by a tsunami should a large scale earthquake occur.
Flooding: Lower lands like the Fraser valley possess lower elevations and are near the coast which makes them more susceptible to being hit with the effects of flooding.
b)Social: -Communication and electrical lines may be destroyed and necessary communication will be corrupted
-People may lack basic resources like water and electricity due to pipeline/wire damages.
-Over 400 people would be killed
-Roads may be destroyed and unusable for transportation.
-Some people will become homeless
-Food could be difficult to access 
-Economic: -There could be over $150,000 in damages
-Commercial buildings/factories may be destroyed
-Government money will go towards supporting affected individuals
-Thousands could lose their jobs due to damages
-Natural resources could be destroyed and no longer able to contribute to Canada’s economy
Infrastructure: -Tunnels could cave in
-Older bridges of poorer construction may fall
-The skytrain will be no-longer functional without the use of electricity(which will probably be gone until restoration) to control the magnets that allow it to run
-Water reservoirs may be contaminated 
-Pavement will crack
4)To be prepared for the earthquake, Vancouver has plans to complete Granville bridge’s upgrade so that it will not be effected by seismic activity. For the social issues occurring with the issue like homelessness and lack of resources, using community disaster support hubs is part of their strategy.

  Commercial buildings are now made with extra caution to become earthquake proof, ensuring the safety of people and the business. Strategies also include enhancing access to the water supply used for firefighting even after the earthquake are being planned as many pipelines will be damaged but as earthquakes are prone to fires and without water, vancouver would be helpless to it, it is essential that there is enough accessible water to fight fires.

Waikiki

1) The volume of sand that was once abundant on Waikiki Beach has  now become almost completely eroded as a result of industrialization in the 1800s when it became a popular tourist destination. Because the beach is mostly ma-made, it faces many complications that have to do with the fact that concrete-control structures such as sea walls having manipulated and changed the natural flow of water on the beach. As sea levels respond to human impact, sand is moved around differently and in this case, is gradually being covered and pulled away from the beach
2) Since 1939 there have been sand-replenishment programs there have bean over 10 replenishment attempts in which at over 300,000 cubic yards of sand were added to the beach. These attempts have served as very temporary solutions to the overall problem and have not come close to being a long-term solution. A few years, 2.2 million was spent to spread new sand over the span of 1730 feet. Less than a year afterwards, the beach continued to erode. The current plan is for the government to receive 7 cents for every 1000 dollars worth of a businesses property value and use it towards replenishment. In addition, there is a plan to float a barge over large masses of sand and transferring it via pipeline to the shore. I think that a gradual upkeep plan like this would be more effective than one large depositing of sand, however neither is a long term solution. There needs to be another strategy that can make the shoreline exist farther out. 
3)Economically, the taxes of residents are used on replenishing the beach. People in the tourist industry on beaches will have a more difficult time working as less-and less- beach exists. There will be less vacation tourism in Waikiki if it's signature beaches are not there anymore.  On the social side, tourists will no longer be able to enjoy the beach and resident/tourist surfers face safety hazards with the uncovering of dangerous concrete. Native Hawaiians are losing their valued area of historical significance. Tourists will not be able to have an aesthetically pleasing beach experience as the shore is full of chains, concrete, and sandbags. Environmentally, the constant replenishing and addition of sand from humans could affect ecosystems close to shore that are bombarded with foreign sand and the biomass on other beaches where the sand is extracted from may be corrupted. 

Rhine River Case Study

1) The rhine river is considered the Industrial Heartland because it is one of the longest rivers in Europe and flows through six countries. It is heavily utilized for transportation of transportation of goods and raw materials throughout the continent. The river facilitates the connection between Rotterdam(largest seaport in the world)and Duisburg(largest inland port). The river is the source of drinking water for over 20 million people, supports a diversely thriving ecosystem, utilized for energy, and carries away municipal wastewater.  The Rust Belt region has been formerly referred to as the industrial heartland of North America due to the presence of the great lakes.

2)Human activity has lead to this river being known as one of the most polluted in Europe. One signifiant accident affecting the river involved a chemical spill in 1986 that made it heavily contaminated. Contamination and pollution is minimally tolerated by salmon and combined with overfishing, there was a significant loss of salmon-population. After the second world war, there was a significant amount of waste contaminating the river (pesticides, heavy metals, organic chlorine compounds, hydrocarbons).The upper rhine was also straightened for navigation purposes.

3) In solving the river's problems with pollution, it would be beneficial to have less chemical plants and factories built near the river to prevent future waste-accidents. There should not be so many nuclear power plants/chemical industries around a large boy of crucial water. This would be difficult to implement as there are already many built around the river and raw materials for the power plant/ chemical industries will take longer to arrive and be more difficult to transport. Furthermore,
Furthermore, there could be more fish-habitat restoring programs to attempt to restore the ecosystem. This would be difficult as the river is already heavily polluted.

Case Study: Land Subsistence in the American Southwest

A) The greatest cause of land subsidence is over drafting aquifer. This occurs when ground water is pumped from areas with clay/silt beds around it. These beds lose support due to loss of water pressure. As the water is gradually drained from the clay/silt, the beds are compressed and the land is permanently lowered and compacted. Other Causes include human activity such as the underground pumping of resources (water, oil and gas),sinkholes,soil drainage, and mine collapse.

As human development increases, more and more resources are taken from the earth. The more resources that are taken from the earth, the more he earth is damaged. 

B)Land subsidence can be hazardous to construction and development. It can cause damage to buildings and infrastructure as well as pipelines, sewage, and drainage systems. Transportation is effaced as bridges,roads, railroads, can be ruined. Well casing failure is also an issue. Furthermore, as the land lowers in coastal areas, the tide may advance to areas which were never before below tide level. Earth fissures(cracks/openings in the earth) may also occur as a result of land subsidence.

C)  Some ways to prevent land subsidence would include drafting aquifers where there are less clay and silt beds. Soil drainage can be minimized and underground pumping can be more spread out and gradual causing a weaker impact on the soil. Mines can be more strongly reinforced and filled in before use so as not to accidentally collapse and lead to subsistence.

Water Use in Agriculture

Surface Irrigation
Pros: 
-Simple to operate
-Inexpensive
-Easily utilized by developing countries
-Less technology and tools required
Cons:
-Roughly 1/2 of water is not transported to crops and is wasted 
-Water is lost from Runoff

Drip Irrigation
Pros:
-More efficient in watering fruits/veggies than flooding
-Less evaporation
-Water is applied directly to the root and is more nourishing to plant
-Water is easily directed
Cons:
-Equipment is more costly than flood irrigation
-Installation can be troublesome
-Can require significant management time

Spray Irrigation
Pros:
-Less wasteful than surface irrigation
-Offer controlled, thorough, and automated watering intervals
Cons:
-Requires costly machinery
-High levels of evaporation occur 
-High pressure systems are lest precise and more wasteful

     In my opinion, drip irrigation is the ideal option for farmers to utilize. The fact that it is least wasteful makes it less expensive in the long-run which accomodates for the initial costliness of equipment. Furthermore, considering the many issues of water shortage around the world, it is very important to conserve as much water as possible and this system definitely does that well. Because the flow is very controlled and applied directly to the root, more money and water is saved in this method than the spray or surface methods. Utilizing rows of rubber tubes would also reduce manual labor required for watering plants in contrast with surface irrigation. Therefore, i think that if countries have the financial ability to invest in drip irrigation, It would be the most beneficial method of irrigation to use.

Deforestation

1)
In Pakistan, deforestation is a prevalent issue resulting in environmental problems. 48% of Kashmir's(capital city) forest has been reduced to 44% over the last 20 years. In fact, Pakistan has been said to have one of the highest rates of deforestation in all of Asia. People rely on the forests for resources (wood, food, wildlife) however on 2.5 of the forest land there is an approximately 2.1 % deforestation rate.Over 151,000 hectares of Pakistani forest have been demolished. This is leading to climate change, soil erosion, and lack of biodiversity.

2)
Impacts of deforestation in Pakistan
Social:
-mountain/forest communities are suffering from a decrease in the natural resources that they rely on (wood, food, pasture)
-poor communities that rely on forests are being more affected by poverty
-as rarity of plant species increases, traditional healers can no longer utilize them and the historic knowledge of healing plants may be forgotten
Environmental:
-Lack of biodiversity
-Increases desertification and soil erosion
-Decrease in rate of rainfall
-Deforestation aggravates intense flooding
Economic:
-Floods resulting from/worsened by deforestation have inflicted $16 billion (US) worth in damages to infrastructure
-The overall rate of people fallen below the poverty line increases as natural resources decrease
3)
I believe that deforestation is a greater issue in Pakistan than it is in Canada. Based on the information provided, it is evident that Canada has a lower rate of deforestation occurring and logging is more regulated. In 1988 the first large illegal tree-felling occurred in Pakistan, ridding the country of roughly 400,000 cubic feet of forest wood. There was no punishment given to the industry that did this and therefore people continue to do this as there is no consequence. Canada on the other hand has very strict regulations utilizing less destructive methods of cutting down trees and facilitating re-growth operations. Furthermore, as the rate of deforestation decreases in Canada, it is increasing in Pakistan. This is evident in that Pakistan is literally falling apart in comparison to Canada. Pakistan's weather and precipitation is greatly affected by the deforestation in the country, floods are occurring, and people are living in poverty because of it. Canada seems to have the situation more under control.

Aquaculture

1. Aquaculture is the term for farmed oceanic resources ( fish, crustaceans, and plants ).

2. Pros and Cons of Aquaculture:
 Environmental Pros:
-Adds additional supply to overfished species (ex. salmon, sea bass)
-Regions involved in aquaculture will be more involved in the protection of coastal waters
 Environmental Cons:
-Spreads parasites/harmful bacteria/diseases to local wild fish species
-Can destroy local ecosystems/habitats
-Gene-pool= not diverse enough- inbreeding
Social Pros:
- The poor can obtain fish at a lower price
- Fisherman in this trade in developing countries may have greater employment opportunities
- Fish contain 35% more fat and therefore greater concentrations of omega 3 fatty acids
Social Cons:
- Fish is more susceptible to parasites and diseases- undesirable for consumption
- Fisherman are exposed to many antibiotics in the farming process
-Humans consume an accumulation of antibiotics, pestecides, and  polychlorinated biphenyls.
Economic Pros: 
-As production of fish increases, demand increases (Jevon's Paradox)
-Countries have the power to produce their own natural resources to profit off of
-Developing countries can have more employment opportunities
Economic Cons:
-Disease spread from aquaculture to natural aquatic resources diminishes the population of natural harvestable sea-life
- As the price of fish lowers due to increase in general fish industry, wild fisherman face higher demands
-Resolving environmental issues resulting from aquaculture costs a significant amount of money

3)I believe that aquaculture is a good thing when utilized for the farming of more simple organisms such as seaweed and crustaceans however when larger fish are cultivated (ex. salmon), there are greater complications to the ecosystem and overall environment. Plants and crustaceans do not carry diseases in a way as destructive as fish-farming does. In fish farming, local wild fish are killed by diseases that are spread and ruin ecosystems. The end product of farmed fish is not ideal either. The fact that it is so highly concentrated with antibiotics, pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls makes the act of eating fish no longer as beneficial to human health. If our ocean is overfished, why can't the world eat less of it? Considering the numerous sources of protein and omega 3s that can be consumed from other less destructive and cheaper sources (seeds, vegetables, fungus) farmed fish is not absolutely necessary. In my opinion, instead of destroying shorelines and sea life, it would be economically and environmentally beneficial to have more agriculture in developing countries instead of aquaculture. 
1. Aquaculture is the term for farmed oceanic resources ( fish, crustaceans, and plants ).

2. Pros and Cons of Aquaculture:
 Environmental Pros:
-Adds additional supply to overfished species (ex. salmon, sea bass)
-Regions involved in aquaculture will be more involved in the protection of coastal waters
 Environmental Cons:
-Spreads parasites/harmful bacteria/diseases to local wild fish species
-Can destroy local ecosystems/habitats
-Gene-pool= not diverse enough- inbreeding
Social Pros:
- The poor can obtain fish at a lower price
- Fisherman in this trade in developing countries may have greater employment opportunities
- Fish contain 35% more fat and therefore greater concentrations of omega 3 fatty acids
Social Cons:
- Fish is more susceptible to parasites and diseases- undesirable for consumption
- Fisherman are exposed to many antibiotics in the farming process
-Humans consume an accumulation of antibiotics, pestecides, and  polychlorinated biphenyls.
Economic Pros: 
-As production of fish increases, demand increases (Jevon's Paradox)
-Countries have the power to produce their own natural resources to profit off of
-Developing countries can have more employment opportunities
Economic Cons:
-Disease spread from aquaculture to natural aquatic resources diminishes the population of natural harvestable sea-life
- As the price of fish lowers due to increase in general fish industry, wild fisherman face higher demands
-Resolving environmental issues resulting from aquaculture costs a significant amount of money

3)I believe that aquaculture is a good thing when utilized for the farming of more simple organisms such as seaweed and crustaceans however when larger fish are cultivated (ex. salmon), there are greater complications to the ecosystem and overall environment. Plants and crustaceans do not carry diseases in a way as destructive as fish-farming does. In fish farming, local wild fish are killed by diseases that are spread and ruin ecosystems. The end product of farmed fish is not ideal either. The fact that it is so highly concentrated with antibiotics, pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls makes the act of eating fish no longer as beneficial to human health. If our ocean is overfished, why can't the world eat less of it? Considering the numerous sources of protein and omega 3s that can be consumed from other less destructive and cheaper sources (seeds, vegetables, fungus) farmed fish is not absolutely necessary. In my opinion, instead of destroying shorelines and sea life, it would be economically and environmentally beneficial to have more agriculture in developing countries instead of aquaculture. 

Fishing

a Impact of fishing on...

Fishermen: 
There is a significant decline in the amount of edible fish left in the ocean, so much so that by the year 2050, it is predicted that there will no longer be an industry in catching edible saltwater fish. This impact of overfishing will cause stakeholders of the fishing industry to have their employment become obsolete due to lack of natural resources. Demands will cause them to pursue more damaging ways to capture fish(ex. bottom trawling) , which could only result in further depleting the world's fish population. The fishermen themselves are overfishing and causing the future of their industry to be jeopardized. 
Consumers: 
Due to lack of edible fish in the ocean (for instance bluefin tuna), people will pay more and demonstrate higher demands for certain species. Many consumers will have demands for a certain fish based on the sole purpose of it being less common. Consumers will pay higher quantities for overfished fished and will have will face an inflation in the price of all significantly fished species (ex. Salmon, Cod,) as a result of overfishing + supply and demand.
Governments:
Governments highly invested in fishing exports will need to adapt their regulations and enforcements in order to protect their country's depleting fish supply. They will need to regulate the amount of fish caught and the methods in which fisheries are doing so in order to maintain the possibility sustaining the fish population. The government will also need to adapt to changes in economy due to changes in oceanic resources, especially if the country's economy relies heavily on the fish exports such as China and Vietnam.
The Environment:
The environment is effected by fishing as many industries are irresponsible. Extreme measures in fishing can and have destroyed entire ecosystems. Lack of biodiversity as a result of overfishing will make it difficult for species to continue to multiply, which could lead to extinction. Decrease or increases of a species in any environment will dramatically affect the ecosystem. The ecosystem can also be destroyed by practices such as  bottom trawling which wreaks havoc on the ocean floor and accidentally abandoning fishing nets that become "ghost nets". These nets will remain in the ocean and can unnecessarily kill thousands of marine life. Furthermore, commercial fishing pollutes the environment with the oil and chemicals of fishing boats.

b) Fishing in Pakistan
-The coastal population of Pakistan is heavily dependant on the fishing industry. It also affects the greater economy of Pakistan as approximately 611,246 tonnes of fishery products are produced and 151,830 tonnes are exported. To give an idea of the economic impact of Pakistan's fishing industry, 117 million fishery products were exported from the month of July to May from 2002 to 2003. 
-Significant decrease in Pakistan's fish population has occurred due to the excessive use of tidal trap nets: a form of fishing that wipes out juvenile fish, captures bycatch, and destroys ecosystems. Deep sea trawling is also utilized quite often illegally.  These fishing methods have lead to a less prosperous fishing industry and a greater chance of species extinction.
-This overfishing has made it extremely difficult for fishermen to earn a living in the fishing industry. Regulated, ethical fishermen cannot compete with the commercial bounty of illegal fishing corporations. 
-Global warming has lead to temperatures that have a negative correlation with the population of Barramundi but a positive correlation with the catch of mullet.
-Overfishing will not drastically corrupt the economy because the fishing industry only contributes to 1% of the GDP however their exports have been roughly 367 million in the past and therefore, It will be the civilians in the fishing industry and civilians that require a local food source that will be affected as their natural resource is no longer sustainable. 

Biomes

     Himalayan Alpine Biome

Countries With This Biome:

-Southern Asia (Pakistan, Bhutan, China, Tibet, India, and Nepal)

Climate:

Throughout the seasons, it is constantly snowing in this biome however there is a distinct difference between the winter and summer months. Winters are extremely icy and frigid whereas summer months are slightly warmer. Temperature can range from lows around -10 Celsius to near 23 Celsius in the summer. 

Animals:

There are not many animals that can withstand the transitioning cold temperatures of the Himalayan Alpine climate but a few animals have adapted to this extreme environment

Himalayan Tahr

The himalayan tahr is related to the goat family equipped with a dense winter coat that sheds in the summer, and is able to climb mountains well with it's gripping hooves.

Himalayan Yak

Wild yaks found in the himalayan alpines are undomestic oxen's kept warm by thick, wooly fur as well as the fermenting mechanism of their digestive system generating an internal food-furnace that produces temperatures around 40 degrees Celsius.

Snow Leopard

Feeding off of wild Himalayan animals including wild sheep and alpine rodents, the snow leopard has adapted to its winter environment with furry insulating paws, a large nasal cavities for intaking greater amounts of oxygen in higher altitudes.

Plants:

The Himalayan Alpine biome is, in part, a hostile environment with less mature tree growth and more grasses, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. Rhododendrons grow abundantly in lower altitudes as where there is less snow, flowers cover the ground.

The Rhododendron flower is has adapted to be protected from grazing alpine animals thanks to it's production of the poison, grayanotoxin. The leaves are also tough to prevent themselves from being grazed upon by herbivores. The plant has adapted to achieve a large amount of surface area to be enriched with as much sunlight as possible.

Soil:

Himalayan foothill soil: sandy and acidic

Forest soil:  topsoil is very rich in hummus

Podzols: Infertile, acidic, and ashy

High altitude meadow soil: soil is thin, gritty, and rich in hummus

      (podzol) 

Limiting Factors: 

-Infertile soil

-High altitudes

-Frigid temperatures

-Rough, rocky terrain

-Steep mountain slopes

-Constant snowing

Human Impact: 

-Installed for hydroelectricity purposes, a bombardment of man-made dams and dam-related activities are destroying himalayan forests and the ecosystems inside of them

-Deforestation leads to landslides

-Himalayan mining( salt) affects the lithosphere and biosphere

Mining

Part A

Shaft Mining:

 In shaft mining, an approximately vertical tunnel is excavated to allow miners to extract materials from deep in the earth. The head-frame descends into a shaft which leads to the underground mining facility. This technique is used when desired materials are located deep below the earth's surface.
Advantages: 
-Least damaging to the surface of the earth
-Does not destroy the amount of nature that open pit mining does
-Most environmentally friendly
-Only the shaft is visible
-More effective for diamond mining and metals
Disadvantages
-The most tedious method
-Less efficient
-More dangerous to navigate
-Restrictive space
-Groundwater issues

Strip Mining:

Surface mining is used when desired material is located near the surface of the earth. Overburden (top layer of the ground) is removed and moved with explosives into an empty pit and a large pit is excavated into the lithosphere for the extraction of minerals.Methods include area stripping or contour stripping. Open pit mining is similar and is done by removing materials from the earth from an open pit.
Advantages:
-Less dangerous to navigate
-Most efficient for sedimentary mining
-Useful when material is too unstable for tunnelling
-Useful when desired material is close to the    surface and overburden is thin
Disadvantages
-Destructive towards vegetation, water sources, and topography
-Large amounts of rock waste is left, useless if not reclaimed
-Often when reclaimed, human sewage sludge is used( not a good material to be exposed to)
-Ecosystems are often destroyed

Part B

Spouse: If I were the spouse of a miner, I would prefer that he work in an open-pit mine. That way it there would be less chance of him being injured in an accident and he may be payed more as well as have a better chance of obtaining a job due to the turnout of product produced

Owner of a mining company: If I were the owner of a mining company, I would not be able to live with myself knowing that my work permanently destroys ecosystems and therefore would chose shaft mining because it is less damaging to the earth's topography. There may be more liabilities as injuries would be more likely to occur in shaft mining however the equipment for shaft mining costs less and it would take a significantly lower toll on the environment. Just because I may earn more money in a more efficient mine does not mean that I would be able to produce 5,000 tonnes of waste each day.

Environmentalist: If I were an environmentalist, I would definitely choose the option of shaft mining because it would not disrupt the earth's topography or ecosystems nearly as much as surface mining. Water would be less affected and the health of surrounding people would be more safe as less harmful leeching elements such as cyanide and mercury would be utilized.

Owner of a nearby ski resort: If I were the owner of a nearby ski resort, I would opt for preserving the surrounding scenery. Because strip mining/open pits obliterate forests and are an eyesore to look at, I would choose shaft mining as the impact visible would be mostly underground.

Politician: If I were a politician, I would want as many people in the area that I represent to be employed and therefore (if I was careless and not a supporter of the environment) would vouch for the operation of an efficient surface mine. This would have the potential to bring the area a better economy.

Part C

The mining industry accounts for a great amount of Pakistan's economy.
Materials mined include...
-Coal
-Mineral Salt
-Copper
-Gold
-Iron ore
-Gypsum
-Limestone
-Chromites
-Silver
-Antimony
-Zinc
-Precious gems/stones
-Marble
-Copper
-Granite
-Coal
-Silica
-Fire Clay
-Graphite
-Silica

Pakistan's mountains are rich in resources and imports some of the world's finest Grade A marble. In Reko Diq, producing over 170,000 metric tons of gold per year.Huge old salt mines known as the  Kherwa Salt mines are also very significant to the Pakistani economy as approximately 325,000 tons of salt is extracted yearly. The ideal time of year for mining is in the warmer spring and summer months however the mining industry thrives throughout the year. Shaft and surface mining are both practiced.





























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Impact of Climate Change

Pakistan has been influenced by climate change in a multitude of ways.
Hydrosphere
- global warming has caused the Himalayan glaciers to melt, affecting the flow of important rivers

 -Drastically irregular rainfall patterns
-Extreme weather (ex. floods)
- Rising sea level

                                   

Biosphere
-Agriculture is affected by climate change, forcing Pakistan to adapt it's farming strategies to fit the decrease in water and increase of heat. This is relevant as the economy of Pakistan is largely reliant on crop industries(specifically wheat production)

-Floods due to the climate-affected biosphere are killing people, crops, and animals
-Forest atmosphere changes- animals must adapt

Lithosphere
-Soil is arid due to flooding
-land is dry in the warm seasons

Atmosphere
-The atmosphere above Pakistan and the rest of the earth has a higher level of CO2, causing increased warmth

Climate Controls

Latitude: about 30 degrees N -due to lower latitude and closer proximity to the equator, Pakistan receives more direct sunlight than countries of higher latitude. Higher latitude also results in higher levels of precipitation. Because Pakistan is a continental area, it has a larger seasonal temperature change and more precipitation because it is directly next to the water source of the ocean. Pakistan also has a variety of elevations that affect temperature. Some areas are above 1000 meters in elevation and there are also mountain ranges of 5000 meters. In these regions, temperature is cooler as altitude increases. Furthermore, as the warm ocean currents on the coast of Pakistan generate a warmer air temperature. Pakistan hovers around a subtropical high with the coastal regions exhibiting a wet summer and a dry winter and the more maritime regions being more dry.


( climate graph of Islamabad( capital of Pakistan)

The dominant climate of Pakistan is continental and it generally experiences wet summers and dry winters. Summer temperatures can range very high whereas winters are known to be extremely cold. The most precipitation occurs in august, ranging roughly around 300mm throughout the country.

Waste Management

The waste management system in Pakistan is less then satisfactory as there is a lack of landfills. Instead, it is common for people to illegally dump their waste throughout the country. There is lack of concern for waste management/treatment systems and therefore,the safety of the environment is not a topic of concern. Hazardous waste producing institutions including scientific and medical ones generally do not have the budget to use incinerators so hazardous waste is just dumped in areas such as low-lying areas and ditches or even just the side of the road. The incinerators that are used are run down and aren't maintained well. Overall, environmental and health safety is not a top priority in country.
The challenges of waste disposal are that there is basically nowhere to put the waste. Therefore, urban groundwater is polluted. Toxic waste is dumped in municipal waste disposal areas, contaminating the ground and people that it comes in contact with. Human waste isn't even treated properly as there are barely three somewhat functional sewage treatment plants. The rest of the sewage is used in agriculture. People are eating vegetables that have been watered by human fecal matter.
To improve waste management in Pakistan, the government needs to actually spend money on protecting the health and cleanliness of their country. Approximately 1.3% of Pakistan's budget is used for health purposes.This seems incredibly low as 23.1% of their money is spent on Military. Pakistan needs to invest in more properly functional incinerators, landfills, and sewage treatment plants for the safety and livability of their country.

5 themes of the environment

1) Location
 Includes absolute (longitude and latitude) and relative ( in relation to another place) location

the absolute location of Pakistan is on the coordinates, 33.6667° N, 73.1667° E
the relative location of Pakistan is in South Asia where it is bordered by Iran, Afghanistan, India, and the Arabian Sea

2) Human Interaction
The relationship between humans and their environment,
Ex. In Pakistan, humans mine the lithosphere to extract minerals and earn money

3) Movement
Includes movement of ideas, goods, and people ( travel)       
Ex. Pakistan transports it's petroleum to other countries

4)Region
An area with unifying characteristics
Ex. Pakistan's three main areas are the northern highlands, the plains, and the plateau.

5)Place
Includes human( housing and industry) and physical characteristics (land and resources)
Ex. Pakistan has a varying landscape of flat and elevated/steep ground. Some of its resources include coal, precious gems, and salt. Housing is generally low cost and its largest industry is cotton/textile production. 

Super Cyclone Gonu

Super Cyclone Gonu was one of the most powerful cyclones to be recorded in the middle east. Formed on January 1, 2007,  the category-five hurricane unleashed wind speeds reaching 240 kilometers per hour
. 

The aftermath of this cyclone was devastating as including 37 missing persons, there were 78 fatalities recorded. Thousands were left homeless and waterlogged cars lay scattered and upturned on the demolished street. Off of the destroyed coast of Pakistan,fishing ships were reported to have been stranded and damaged. Economic impact included a spike in oil prices due to the storm's interference with oil shipping and gas prices increased due to the damming of Sur's large gas terminal. As of the biosphere, plants were waterlogged and dead, animals were killed, and so were humans. The lithosphere had also been altered due to flooding. The hydrosphere impact was the enormous amount of precipitation.

Weather and climate questions

1. Rays from the sun
2. There is more direct sunlight in contact with the earth in the equatorial regions which results in radiation and warmth.
3. Albedo: refracted solar energy that bounces off the earth’s reflective surface and enters space. A snow covered mountain would absorb less radiation as its reflectivity would cause sun rays to bounce off of it
4. Laps Rate: rate at which the temperature of the atmosphere lowers with higher altitudesex. Elevated mountains are cold. Flat deserts are hot.

5. Aspect: Compass direction of where a slope faces. The north side is a better area for plants.

6 The earth’s axis is tilted. When the axis tilts towards the sun, it is summer and as it tilts away from the sun, winter occurs.

7. Water has the higher albedo so it will take longer to heat up than less reflective land.

8. Because the parries are far away from water, the land absorbs the most heat and therefore has the capacity to be much warmer than coastal areas.

9. Water is cooled in the atlantic from arctic winds which results in higher salt concentration and density. As this stream of cold, dense water moves to the equator it is warmed. The gulf stream is the force that moves warm water from the Equator to the Atlantic.

10. The California Current runs past BC

11. Extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will result in the greenhouse affect, causing the earth to be warmer.

12. Convection: Vertical transport of atmospheric properties

13. Movement of air due to pressure difference in the atmosphere

14. Urban heat island: metropolitan area where man-made factors including land modification cause it to have a significantly warmer temperature.

Air masses, Global winds, and Types of Rain

The dominant air mass that impacts Pakistan is mostly Tropical (due to low latitude and warm weather) and mostly Continental (although one part of it is in contact with the ocean, the land is mostly inland). Towards the coast, the climate varies from warm to breezy however as the country progresses more inland, there are higher elevations and generally cooler temperatures. The changing of the seasons is characterized by a cold, dry winter, a hot and dry winter, and a wet summer of monsoons. The country of Pakistan is affected by the trade winds. Pakistan is also in close proximity to the Indian Ocean Gyre. The most abundant source of rainfall in Pakistan is in the form of the southwest monsoon, a natural occurrence that causes many intense floods And land-issues. It is common because of Pakistan's proximity to the cold regions of Asia (Himalayas). Monsoons blow from the cold to warm regions so the wind that blow through regions such as the Himalayas bring the Monsoons to Pakistan.

Kashmir Quake

On October 8, 2005, what has been ranked as the 15th deadliest earthquake to have been recorded occurred in the northwest region of Asia. The Kashmir earthquake struck the India-Pakistan boarder and killed approximately 73,000 people while rendering 3.3 million homeless.

The region of Kashmir is located at the juncture of the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates which is considered seismically unstable. When they collided, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Northern India were gravely affected.

The juncture of the earthquake was devastating as buildings literally slid off of the earth. Entire parts of towns ended up sliding off of cliffs and the landslides buried roads and buildings. Large cracks were formed in the once-flat ground and towers collapsed. Many of the survivors who were left in this desolation froze to death in the winter. Furthermore, necessary resources were scarce as food was an issue and broken sewage pipes introduced contamination to the water supply, spreading disease those who drank it.

This earthquake had affected the lithosphere(tectonic movement), the biosphere(humans and infrastructure), and the hydrosphere(water supply). The earthquake caused the lithosphere to change shape as the tectonic plates  moved. Cracked ground and landslides also indicate an effect to the lithosphere. The humans who were killed/injured, the dying animals, scarcity of plants, and destroyed infrastructure are all part of the biosphere which was affected by the shock of the lithosphere. Furthermore, the pollution of the water supply involves the hydrosphere which was initiated by the lithosphere and effected the biosphere (humans). Hydrospheric change in wave activity could have been initiated by the movement of the lithosphere. The movement of the lithosphere may have also affected the atmosphere by releasing methane gas. Methane itself has been known to cause global warming in the atmosphere which would affect the humans of the biosphere.Moreover, global warming affects the hydrosphere by causing natural sources of freshwater to melt. This earthquake drastically impacted the four spheres.