Water Use in Agriculture

Surface Irrigation
Pros: 
-Simple to operate
-Inexpensive
-Easily utilized by developing countries
-Less technology and tools required
Cons:
-Roughly 1/2 of water is not transported to crops and is wasted 
-Water is lost from Runoff

Drip Irrigation
Pros:
-More efficient in watering fruits/veggies than flooding
-Less evaporation
-Water is applied directly to the root and is more nourishing to plant
-Water is easily directed
Cons:
-Equipment is more costly than flood irrigation
-Installation can be troublesome
-Can require significant management time

Spray Irrigation
Pros:
-Less wasteful than surface irrigation
-Offer controlled, thorough, and automated watering intervals
Cons:
-Requires costly machinery
-High levels of evaporation occur 
-High pressure systems are lest precise and more wasteful

     In my opinion, drip irrigation is the ideal option for farmers to utilize. The fact that it is least wasteful makes it less expensive in the long-run which accomodates for the initial costliness of equipment. Furthermore, considering the many issues of water shortage around the world, it is very important to conserve as much water as possible and this system definitely does that well. Because the flow is very controlled and applied directly to the root, more money and water is saved in this method than the spray or surface methods. Utilizing rows of rubber tubes would also reduce manual labor required for watering plants in contrast with surface irrigation. Therefore, i think that if countries have the financial ability to invest in drip irrigation, It would be the most beneficial method of irrigation to use.

Deforestation

1)
In Pakistan, deforestation is a prevalent issue resulting in environmental problems. 48% of Kashmir's(capital city) forest has been reduced to 44% over the last 20 years. In fact, Pakistan has been said to have one of the highest rates of deforestation in all of Asia. People rely on the forests for resources (wood, food, wildlife) however on 2.5 of the forest land there is an approximately 2.1 % deforestation rate.Over 151,000 hectares of Pakistani forest have been demolished. This is leading to climate change, soil erosion, and lack of biodiversity.

2)
Impacts of deforestation in Pakistan
Social:
-mountain/forest communities are suffering from a decrease in the natural resources that they rely on (wood, food, pasture)
-poor communities that rely on forests are being more affected by poverty
-as rarity of plant species increases, traditional healers can no longer utilize them and the historic knowledge of healing plants may be forgotten
Environmental:
-Lack of biodiversity
-Increases desertification and soil erosion
-Decrease in rate of rainfall
-Deforestation aggravates intense flooding
Economic:
-Floods resulting from/worsened by deforestation have inflicted $16 billion (US) worth in damages to infrastructure
-The overall rate of people fallen below the poverty line increases as natural resources decrease
3)
I believe that deforestation is a greater issue in Pakistan than it is in Canada. Based on the information provided, it is evident that Canada has a lower rate of deforestation occurring and logging is more regulated. In 1988 the first large illegal tree-felling occurred in Pakistan, ridding the country of roughly 400,000 cubic feet of forest wood. There was no punishment given to the industry that did this and therefore people continue to do this as there is no consequence. Canada on the other hand has very strict regulations utilizing less destructive methods of cutting down trees and facilitating re-growth operations. Furthermore, as the rate of deforestation decreases in Canada, it is increasing in Pakistan. This is evident in that Pakistan is literally falling apart in comparison to Canada. Pakistan's weather and precipitation is greatly affected by the deforestation in the country, floods are occurring, and people are living in poverty because of it. Canada seems to have the situation more under control.

Aquaculture

1. Aquaculture is the term for farmed oceanic resources ( fish, crustaceans, and plants ).

2. Pros and Cons of Aquaculture:
 Environmental Pros:
-Adds additional supply to overfished species (ex. salmon, sea bass)
-Regions involved in aquaculture will be more involved in the protection of coastal waters
 Environmental Cons:
-Spreads parasites/harmful bacteria/diseases to local wild fish species
-Can destroy local ecosystems/habitats
-Gene-pool= not diverse enough- inbreeding
Social Pros:
- The poor can obtain fish at a lower price
- Fisherman in this trade in developing countries may have greater employment opportunities
- Fish contain 35% more fat and therefore greater concentrations of omega 3 fatty acids
Social Cons:
- Fish is more susceptible to parasites and diseases- undesirable for consumption
- Fisherman are exposed to many antibiotics in the farming process
-Humans consume an accumulation of antibiotics, pestecides, and  polychlorinated biphenyls.
Economic Pros: 
-As production of fish increases, demand increases (Jevon's Paradox)
-Countries have the power to produce their own natural resources to profit off of
-Developing countries can have more employment opportunities
Economic Cons:
-Disease spread from aquaculture to natural aquatic resources diminishes the population of natural harvestable sea-life
- As the price of fish lowers due to increase in general fish industry, wild fisherman face higher demands
-Resolving environmental issues resulting from aquaculture costs a significant amount of money

3)I believe that aquaculture is a good thing when utilized for the farming of more simple organisms such as seaweed and crustaceans however when larger fish are cultivated (ex. salmon), there are greater complications to the ecosystem and overall environment. Plants and crustaceans do not carry diseases in a way as destructive as fish-farming does. In fish farming, local wild fish are killed by diseases that are spread and ruin ecosystems. The end product of farmed fish is not ideal either. The fact that it is so highly concentrated with antibiotics, pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls makes the act of eating fish no longer as beneficial to human health. If our ocean is overfished, why can't the world eat less of it? Considering the numerous sources of protein and omega 3s that can be consumed from other less destructive and cheaper sources (seeds, vegetables, fungus) farmed fish is not absolutely necessary. In my opinion, instead of destroying shorelines and sea life, it would be economically and environmentally beneficial to have more agriculture in developing countries instead of aquaculture. 
1. Aquaculture is the term for farmed oceanic resources ( fish, crustaceans, and plants ).

2. Pros and Cons of Aquaculture:
 Environmental Pros:
-Adds additional supply to overfished species (ex. salmon, sea bass)
-Regions involved in aquaculture will be more involved in the protection of coastal waters
 Environmental Cons:
-Spreads parasites/harmful bacteria/diseases to local wild fish species
-Can destroy local ecosystems/habitats
-Gene-pool= not diverse enough- inbreeding
Social Pros:
- The poor can obtain fish at a lower price
- Fisherman in this trade in developing countries may have greater employment opportunities
- Fish contain 35% more fat and therefore greater concentrations of omega 3 fatty acids
Social Cons:
- Fish is more susceptible to parasites and diseases- undesirable for consumption
- Fisherman are exposed to many antibiotics in the farming process
-Humans consume an accumulation of antibiotics, pestecides, and  polychlorinated biphenyls.
Economic Pros: 
-As production of fish increases, demand increases (Jevon's Paradox)
-Countries have the power to produce their own natural resources to profit off of
-Developing countries can have more employment opportunities
Economic Cons:
-Disease spread from aquaculture to natural aquatic resources diminishes the population of natural harvestable sea-life
- As the price of fish lowers due to increase in general fish industry, wild fisherman face higher demands
-Resolving environmental issues resulting from aquaculture costs a significant amount of money

3)I believe that aquaculture is a good thing when utilized for the farming of more simple organisms such as seaweed and crustaceans however when larger fish are cultivated (ex. salmon), there are greater complications to the ecosystem and overall environment. Plants and crustaceans do not carry diseases in a way as destructive as fish-farming does. In fish farming, local wild fish are killed by diseases that are spread and ruin ecosystems. The end product of farmed fish is not ideal either. The fact that it is so highly concentrated with antibiotics, pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls makes the act of eating fish no longer as beneficial to human health. If our ocean is overfished, why can't the world eat less of it? Considering the numerous sources of protein and omega 3s that can be consumed from other less destructive and cheaper sources (seeds, vegetables, fungus) farmed fish is not absolutely necessary. In my opinion, instead of destroying shorelines and sea life, it would be economically and environmentally beneficial to have more agriculture in developing countries instead of aquaculture. 

Fishing

a Impact of fishing on...

Fishermen: 
There is a significant decline in the amount of edible fish left in the ocean, so much so that by the year 2050, it is predicted that there will no longer be an industry in catching edible saltwater fish. This impact of overfishing will cause stakeholders of the fishing industry to have their employment become obsolete due to lack of natural resources. Demands will cause them to pursue more damaging ways to capture fish(ex. bottom trawling) , which could only result in further depleting the world's fish population. The fishermen themselves are overfishing and causing the future of their industry to be jeopardized. 
Consumers: 
Due to lack of edible fish in the ocean (for instance bluefin tuna), people will pay more and demonstrate higher demands for certain species. Many consumers will have demands for a certain fish based on the sole purpose of it being less common. Consumers will pay higher quantities for overfished fished and will have will face an inflation in the price of all significantly fished species (ex. Salmon, Cod,) as a result of overfishing + supply and demand.
Governments:
Governments highly invested in fishing exports will need to adapt their regulations and enforcements in order to protect their country's depleting fish supply. They will need to regulate the amount of fish caught and the methods in which fisheries are doing so in order to maintain the possibility sustaining the fish population. The government will also need to adapt to changes in economy due to changes in oceanic resources, especially if the country's economy relies heavily on the fish exports such as China and Vietnam.
The Environment:
The environment is effected by fishing as many industries are irresponsible. Extreme measures in fishing can and have destroyed entire ecosystems. Lack of biodiversity as a result of overfishing will make it difficult for species to continue to multiply, which could lead to extinction. Decrease or increases of a species in any environment will dramatically affect the ecosystem. The ecosystem can also be destroyed by practices such as  bottom trawling which wreaks havoc on the ocean floor and accidentally abandoning fishing nets that become "ghost nets". These nets will remain in the ocean and can unnecessarily kill thousands of marine life. Furthermore, commercial fishing pollutes the environment with the oil and chemicals of fishing boats.

b) Fishing in Pakistan
-The coastal population of Pakistan is heavily dependant on the fishing industry. It also affects the greater economy of Pakistan as approximately 611,246 tonnes of fishery products are produced and 151,830 tonnes are exported. To give an idea of the economic impact of Pakistan's fishing industry, 117 million fishery products were exported from the month of July to May from 2002 to 2003. 
-Significant decrease in Pakistan's fish population has occurred due to the excessive use of tidal trap nets: a form of fishing that wipes out juvenile fish, captures bycatch, and destroys ecosystems. Deep sea trawling is also utilized quite often illegally.  These fishing methods have lead to a less prosperous fishing industry and a greater chance of species extinction.
-This overfishing has made it extremely difficult for fishermen to earn a living in the fishing industry. Regulated, ethical fishermen cannot compete with the commercial bounty of illegal fishing corporations. 
-Global warming has lead to temperatures that have a negative correlation with the population of Barramundi but a positive correlation with the catch of mullet.
-Overfishing will not drastically corrupt the economy because the fishing industry only contributes to 1% of the GDP however their exports have been roughly 367 million in the past and therefore, It will be the civilians in the fishing industry and civilians that require a local food source that will be affected as their natural resource is no longer sustainable. 

Biomes

     Himalayan Alpine Biome

Countries With This Biome:

-Southern Asia (Pakistan, Bhutan, China, Tibet, India, and Nepal)

Climate:

Throughout the seasons, it is constantly snowing in this biome however there is a distinct difference between the winter and summer months. Winters are extremely icy and frigid whereas summer months are slightly warmer. Temperature can range from lows around -10 Celsius to near 23 Celsius in the summer. 

Animals:

There are not many animals that can withstand the transitioning cold temperatures of the Himalayan Alpine climate but a few animals have adapted to this extreme environment

Himalayan Tahr

The himalayan tahr is related to the goat family equipped with a dense winter coat that sheds in the summer, and is able to climb mountains well with it's gripping hooves.

Himalayan Yak

Wild yaks found in the himalayan alpines are undomestic oxen's kept warm by thick, wooly fur as well as the fermenting mechanism of their digestive system generating an internal food-furnace that produces temperatures around 40 degrees Celsius.

Snow Leopard

Feeding off of wild Himalayan animals including wild sheep and alpine rodents, the snow leopard has adapted to its winter environment with furry insulating paws, a large nasal cavities for intaking greater amounts of oxygen in higher altitudes.

Plants:

The Himalayan Alpine biome is, in part, a hostile environment with less mature tree growth and more grasses, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. Rhododendrons grow abundantly in lower altitudes as where there is less snow, flowers cover the ground.

The Rhododendron flower is has adapted to be protected from grazing alpine animals thanks to it's production of the poison, grayanotoxin. The leaves are also tough to prevent themselves from being grazed upon by herbivores. The plant has adapted to achieve a large amount of surface area to be enriched with as much sunlight as possible.

Soil:

Himalayan foothill soil: sandy and acidic

Forest soil:  topsoil is very rich in hummus

Podzols: Infertile, acidic, and ashy

High altitude meadow soil: soil is thin, gritty, and rich in hummus

      (podzol) 

Limiting Factors: 

-Infertile soil

-High altitudes

-Frigid temperatures

-Rough, rocky terrain

-Steep mountain slopes

-Constant snowing

Human Impact: 

-Installed for hydroelectricity purposes, a bombardment of man-made dams and dam-related activities are destroying himalayan forests and the ecosystems inside of them

-Deforestation leads to landslides

-Himalayan mining( salt) affects the lithosphere and biosphere

Mining

Part A

Shaft Mining:

 In shaft mining, an approximately vertical tunnel is excavated to allow miners to extract materials from deep in the earth. The head-frame descends into a shaft which leads to the underground mining facility. This technique is used when desired materials are located deep below the earth's surface.
Advantages: 
-Least damaging to the surface of the earth
-Does not destroy the amount of nature that open pit mining does
-Most environmentally friendly
-Only the shaft is visible
-More effective for diamond mining and metals
Disadvantages
-The most tedious method
-Less efficient
-More dangerous to navigate
-Restrictive space
-Groundwater issues

Strip Mining:

Surface mining is used when desired material is located near the surface of the earth. Overburden (top layer of the ground) is removed and moved with explosives into an empty pit and a large pit is excavated into the lithosphere for the extraction of minerals.Methods include area stripping or contour stripping. Open pit mining is similar and is done by removing materials from the earth from an open pit.
Advantages:
-Less dangerous to navigate
-Most efficient for sedimentary mining
-Useful when material is too unstable for tunnelling
-Useful when desired material is close to the    surface and overburden is thin
Disadvantages
-Destructive towards vegetation, water sources, and topography
-Large amounts of rock waste is left, useless if not reclaimed
-Often when reclaimed, human sewage sludge is used( not a good material to be exposed to)
-Ecosystems are often destroyed

Part B

Spouse: If I were the spouse of a miner, I would prefer that he work in an open-pit mine. That way it there would be less chance of him being injured in an accident and he may be payed more as well as have a better chance of obtaining a job due to the turnout of product produced

Owner of a mining company: If I were the owner of a mining company, I would not be able to live with myself knowing that my work permanently destroys ecosystems and therefore would chose shaft mining because it is less damaging to the earth's topography. There may be more liabilities as injuries would be more likely to occur in shaft mining however the equipment for shaft mining costs less and it would take a significantly lower toll on the environment. Just because I may earn more money in a more efficient mine does not mean that I would be able to produce 5,000 tonnes of waste each day.

Environmentalist: If I were an environmentalist, I would definitely choose the option of shaft mining because it would not disrupt the earth's topography or ecosystems nearly as much as surface mining. Water would be less affected and the health of surrounding people would be more safe as less harmful leeching elements such as cyanide and mercury would be utilized.

Owner of a nearby ski resort: If I were the owner of a nearby ski resort, I would opt for preserving the surrounding scenery. Because strip mining/open pits obliterate forests and are an eyesore to look at, I would choose shaft mining as the impact visible would be mostly underground.

Politician: If I were a politician, I would want as many people in the area that I represent to be employed and therefore (if I was careless and not a supporter of the environment) would vouch for the operation of an efficient surface mine. This would have the potential to bring the area a better economy.

Part C

The mining industry accounts for a great amount of Pakistan's economy.
Materials mined include...
-Coal
-Mineral Salt
-Copper
-Gold
-Iron ore
-Gypsum
-Limestone
-Chromites
-Silver
-Antimony
-Zinc
-Precious gems/stones
-Marble
-Copper
-Granite
-Coal
-Silica
-Fire Clay
-Graphite
-Silica

Pakistan's mountains are rich in resources and imports some of the world's finest Grade A marble. In Reko Diq, producing over 170,000 metric tons of gold per year.Huge old salt mines known as the  Kherwa Salt mines are also very significant to the Pakistani economy as approximately 325,000 tons of salt is extracted yearly. The ideal time of year for mining is in the warmer spring and summer months however the mining industry thrives throughout the year. Shaft and surface mining are both practiced.





























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Impact of Climate Change

Pakistan has been influenced by climate change in a multitude of ways.
Hydrosphere
- global warming has caused the Himalayan glaciers to melt, affecting the flow of important rivers

 -Drastically irregular rainfall patterns
-Extreme weather (ex. floods)
- Rising sea level

                                   

Biosphere
-Agriculture is affected by climate change, forcing Pakistan to adapt it's farming strategies to fit the decrease in water and increase of heat. This is relevant as the economy of Pakistan is largely reliant on crop industries(specifically wheat production)

-Floods due to the climate-affected biosphere are killing people, crops, and animals
-Forest atmosphere changes- animals must adapt

Lithosphere
-Soil is arid due to flooding
-land is dry in the warm seasons

Atmosphere
-The atmosphere above Pakistan and the rest of the earth has a higher level of CO2, causing increased warmth